The Gouldian Finch, from Amadina to Erythrura: An Overview
Erythrura gouldiae
By Dirk Van den Abeele
Ornitho-Genetics VZW
online 3 june 2026
De Nederlandse versie van dit artikel kan je hier lezen
Who does not know the Gouldian Finch (Erythrura gouldiae)? This strikingly brightly coloured Australian estrildid finch is undoubtedly found in aviculture, in the collections of many enthusiasts. Its beautifully coloured plumage—and the remarkable colour mutations observed in this species—are certainly among the main reasons for its popularity. In the wild, three forms occur: birds with a red, yellow, or black head colour. Black-headed birds comprise approximately 70% of the wild population and are therefore the most common form. The red-headed variant accounts for about 30%, and the yellow-headed form for less than 1% [1].
The Gouldian Finch
The Gouldian Finch’s natural habitat lies in northern Australia. They live in open tropical woodlands with grassy undergrowth and almost always nest in tree hollows. During the breeding season, Gouldian Finches are mainly found in rocky areas with smooth-barked eucalyptus trees, close to permanent water sources that remain available even during the dry season. Outside the breeding season, they use a broader range of habitats.
Their diet consists primarily of grass seeds, supplemented with small invertebrates. The Gouldian Finch is strongly adapted to seasonal change: during the dry season they mainly eat seeds of annual grasses and sorghum species, while in the wet season they switch to other grasses such as cockatoo grass and Spinifex [2]. When consulting the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, we see that in 2021 this species was fortunately still registered as “Least Concern” (not threatened) [3].
From a taxonomic perspective, the Gouldian Finch has already travelled quite a path, and its scientific name has undergone several changes. We suspect that in recent years we have received at least fifty questions about this. I must admit that we usually left these questions unanswered—mainly because this species was not immediately on our “to-do list” and because the science has not always been clear. Even the various taxonomic lists we consult contradict one another. Fortunately, in recent years several DNA-based studies have provided more scientific clarity. Progressive insights, as my late friend Harry van der Linden used to call them, have changed our viewpoint.
That may sound complicated—and it is! But precisely for that reason I will try to inform you as thoroughly as possible about the how and why, and above all to provide insight into how taxonomy (generally) works.
We therefore begin with a journey through the past.
1844: Amadina gouldiae
It is well known that the Gouldian Finch was first described in 1844 by the Briton John Gould. John Gould (1804–1881) became curator of the museum of the Zoological Society of London at the age of 23. He worked there, among others, with Charles Darwin, who had completed his famous voyage aboard the Beagle in 1836 [4], [5]. As curator, one of his tasks was to compile indexes and descriptions of what were then regarded as “newly discovered” and submitted animal species.
This was the period when voyages to exotic regions were enthusiastically sponsored by monarchs in the hope of expanding their empires. Explorers were accompanied not only by cartographers—tasked with mapping newly explored lands—but also by naturalists. These were scientists avant la lettre whose job it was to collect as much information as possible on the natural riches of the newly discovered territories. Besides gold, silver, and other wealth, their interests extended to local fauna and flora. Consequently, animals were hunted in large numbers, with the aim of describing them, cataloguing them, and sending them to their home country for study.
In addition to naturalists, taxidermists were usually part of these expeditions. Fish and other reptiles were preserved in barrels of brine, but birds and small mammals were usually prepared as skins. In this way they could be preserved effectively. Apart from brief descriptions and notes on the place of collection, drawings were occasionally made, though this was more the exception than the rule.
Whenever possible, shipments of natural history specimens were sent to the sponsors, who in turn had them examined by curators. These compared the specimens with already known species, and if the specimens had never been described before, the curators had the honour and pleasure of assigning them a species name and determining the appropriate genus (taxonomic group). Naturally, all of this was done purely by visual inspection. If subspecies were recognised later, the first described form was always regarded as the (base) nominate form. John Gould, in his capacity as curator, also wrote his first works on birds during this time. As in most ornithological books of the period, the descriptions were mainly based on the submitted skins—undoubtedly the Wikipedia of that era.
But adventure beckoned, and John Gould undertook expeditions of his own. Between 1838 and 1840, he travelled with his wife Elizabeth Coxen, their children, and several researchers to, among other places, Australia, where he was able to observe the Gouldian Finch himself for the first time.
On his return, he began cataloguing his collected specimens, and in 1844 he published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London his first description of the Gouldian Finch, naming it Amadina gouldiae [6, p. 5]. As was customary at the time, the description was partly written in Latin, the language of science.
It is important to note that John Gould described a black-headed specimen. He placed this bird within the genus Amadina. That genus had been introduced in 1827 by Swainson in The Zoological Journal for small finch species. William Swainson (1789–1855) was a British ornithologist who described many new species during his lifetime. The name Amadina is a diminutive derived from the genus Ammodramus, and Swainson intended to create a link between Ammodramus (American sparrows) and Astrilda (waxbills).
1845: Poephila mirabilis
One year later, in 1845, Hombron and Jacquinot described a red-headed Gouldian Finch for the first time under the name Poephila mirabilis. The name Poephila is derived from the Greek poi? (grass) and philos (lover), together meaning “grass lover” [7, p. 312]. Remarkably, John Gould himself had introduced the genus Poephila in 1842 and had already placed several species within it, but not his own Gouldian Finch. As mentioned earlier, he placed that species in the genus Amadina.
Jacques-Bernard Hombron (1798–1852) and Honoré Jacquinot (1815–1887), in French service, were involved in mapping Antarctica. During this expedition, they also visited Australia. Their findings were published in Voyage au Pôle Sud et dans l’Océanie [8]. This work included a drawing of both the red-headed and the black-headed Gouldian Finch. In the caption, they suggested that the red-headed bird might represent an adult male of Poephila mirabilis, while the black-headed bird might be a young male not yet fully coloured.
In the second part of the work, the description followed, with reference to this drawing. Below is a translation of their original French text:
Poephile admirable – Poephila mirabilis
Homb. et Jacq.
Pl. 22, fig. 1, 1, 2. (referring to the illustration)
“This songbird is too well known to require description here. It nevertheless remains questionable whether the specimen indicated as a young male does not belong to a different species.”
This marked the beginning of a discussion among taxonomists that would last for years, concerning whether different species were involved. It is remarkable that barely one year after its first description, the Gouldian Finch had already been placed in two different genera: Amadina and Poephila.
Both authors clearly had their own views. One must bear in mind that taxonomy is not an exact science. DNA research did not yet exist; classifications were based solely on external characteristics such as size, colour, bill shape, and behaviours such as breeding habits, diet, and habitat. Consultation was also difficult, since communication took place mainly by letter. What constituted a distinguishing feature for one author did not necessarily do so for another, with all the consequences that entailed. So many people, so many opinions.
1848: An Ode
In 1848, John Gould published volume 3 of his seven-volume work The Birds of Australia. Alongside an illustration of his Amadina gouldiae, he explained why he had named this bird after his wife, who had died in 1841 [9].
I normally use summaries of such texts in my articles, but I found this passage so special that I wanted to reproduce it in full.
…Amadina gouldiae.
Gouldian Finch
Novelty in itself has attractions, but when with novelty beauty and elegance are combined, the attractions are augmented beyond measure. With this trite observation I here introduce to the notice of the ornithologist a species not only the most beautiful of the family to which it belongs, but which has its plumage adorned with colours and markings that render it conspicuously different from every other bird known; it is in fact beyond the power of my pen to describe or my pencil to portray anything like the splendour of the changeable hues of the lilac band which crosses the breast of this little gem, or the scarcely less beautiful green of the neck and golden-yellow of the abdomen, the latter colour being only equalled, certainly not surpassed, by the crest-feathers of the Golden Pheasant.
Whenever this bird becomes so far common as to form a part of our preserved collections, or to add a living lustre to our aviaries, it cannot fail to become a general favourite. It is therefore with feelings of no ordinary nature that I have ventured to dedicate this new and lovely little bird to the memory of her, who, in addition to being a most affectionate wife, for a number of years laboured so hard and so zealously assisted me with her pencil in my various works, but who, after having made a circuit of the globe with me, and braved many dangers with a courage only equalled by her virtues, and while cheerfully engaged in illustrating the present work, was by the Divine will of her Maker suddenly called from this to a brighter and better world; and I feel assured that in dedicating this bird to the memory of Mrs. Gould, I shall have the full sanction of all who were personally acquainted with her, as well as of those who only knew her by her delicate works as an artist.
A single specimen of apparently an adult male and two immature birds are all that have ever come under my notice; for the former my especial thanks are due to my esteemed friend Benjamin Bynoe, Esq., Surgeon R.N., late of H.M.S. Beagle, who obtained it in the Victoria River, on the north-west coast of Australia.
The young birds were procured by Mr. Gilbert at Port Essington. These three examples are probably all that have been collected, and from the remote situation of the country of which it is a native, a long period is likely to elapse before the species becomes common.
“This would seem to be a very local species,” says Mr. Gilbert, “for I only met with it on Greenhill Island at the head of Van Diemen’s Gulf, where it inhabited the edges of the mangroves and thickets: when disturbed it invariably flew to the topmost branches of the loftiest gums, a habit I have not before observed in any other member of the genus. Its note is a very mournful sound, added to a double twit. Those I observed were feeding among the high grass in small families of from four to seven in number, and were very shy. The stomach is tolerably muscular, and the food consists of grass and other seeds.”
The adult has the forehead, lores, ear-coverts and throat deep velvety-black; from behind the eye, round the occiput, and down the sides of the neck, a mark of verdigris-green, gradually blending into the yellowish green of the upper surface and wings; across the breast a broad band of shining lilac-purple, below which all the under surface is shining wax-yellow; bill flesh-white at the base, tipped with blood-red; feet flesh-colour. The young bird has the head grey; upper surface light olive; under surface pale buff; chin white; primaries and tail brown; irides dark brown.
The figures are of the natural size….
With this final sentence, he referred to the accompanying illustration. At the same time, together with Amadina gouldiae, he placed three other species in the genus Amadina.
These were:
• Amadina modesta (now Neochmia modesta – Plum-headed Finch)
• Amadina lathami (now Stagonopleura guttata – Diamond Firetail)
• Amadina castanotis (now Taeniopygia castanotis – Zebra Finch)
The following chapter on the genus Poephila opened with an illustration of the red-headed Gouldian Finch, which, in accordance with the description by Hombron and Jacquinot in 1845, was labelled as Poephila mirabilis. John Gould clearly disagreed with their interpretation, as evidenced by the text below:
…Poephila mirabilis
Beautiful Grass-Finch
Fine examples of this, one of the most lovely of the Finches yet discovered, are contained in the gallery of the Museum of Natural History of Paris; they were procured by Messrs. Hombron and Jacquinot in the neighbourhood of Raffles’ Bay, on the north coast of Australia, where it is so rare, that those gentlemen only met with three examples, and were unable to make themselves acquainted with its actions and manners.
In the works above-quoted my Poëphila Gouldicæ is figured as the female of the present bird, but this I believe to be a mistake, the specimen from which my description and figure were taken being to all appearance an adult male; and as an evidence that such may be the case, I may mention that no female of the group has yet been discovered so gorgeously arrayed; the females of all the Poephile I have seen resemble their respective males in the colouring of their plumage, but have all the bucs much less brilliant; it is not probable therefore that a bird so gaily coloured as the P. Gouldiæ should be the female of the P. mirabilis; besides which, Mr. Gilbert procured an example of P. Gouldiæ during Dr. Leichardt’s Expedition from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, which dissection proved to be a female, and which although similarly, was much less highly coloured than the bird I have represented.
Crown of the head and cheeks of a beautiful carmine, bounded posteriorly by a narrow line of black;throat black; to this succeeds a hand of pale blue, narrow on the throat and broad on the back of the neck;back and wings green, passing into yellow at the nape of the neck; breast crossed by a broad hand of lilac,separated from the yellow of the abdomen by a narrow line of orange; rump and upper tail-coverts pale blue;quills brown; hill fleshy white, becoming redder at the tip; feet flesh-colour.
The figures represent a male in two positions of the natural size.….
It is clear that the views of both taxonomists diverged fundamentally and that discussions about birds and species were already common at that time. In other words, this is timeless, as enthusiasts can still engage in endless debates on this subject today. It should be noted, however, that Hombron and Jacquinot did not write that the black-headed bird was a female, as Gould stated in his article, but explicitly indicated that it might represent a young male. In addition, it is striking that Gould referred to ‘my Poephila gouldiae’ rather than ‘my Amadina gouldiae’, which may suggest that he himself might have been open to that classification.
1862: Genus Chloebia
In 1862, Heinrich Reichenbach published a substantial work bearing an equally imposing title: Les oiseaux chanteurs = The songbirds = Die Singvögel als Fortsetzung der vollständigsten Naturgeschichte und zugleich als Central-Atlas für zoologische Gärten und für Thierfreunde. Ein durch zahlreiche illuminirte Abbildungen illustrirtes Handbuch zur richtigen Bestimmung und Pflege der Thiere aller Classen, which may freely be translated as: The songbirds as a continuation of the most complete natural history and at the same time as a central atlas for zoological gardens and for animal enthusiasts. A handbook illustrated with numerous coloured plates for the correct identification and care of animals of all classes [10, p. 30].
In this work, he introduced the genus Chloebia. This type of lengthy, descriptive book title was common in the 19th century. The text reflects the ambition of that period to categorise the natural world and to present it to a broad audience of enthusiasts, scientists, and administrators of the emerging zoological gardens.
The German Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach (1793–1879) placed, within the newly created genus Chloebia, the red-headed Gouldian Finch as Chloebia mirabilis and the black-headed variant as Chloebia gouldiae. In other words, he regarded them as two separate species. Reichenbach’s reasons for placing the Gouldian Finch in its own genus Chloebia were mainly based on the bird’s unique appearance, such as its bright colours, green body, red/black/yellow face, general build, and bill shape—a line of reasoning that many enthusiasts still follow today.
With the name Chloebia, he referred to the Greek khlo? (grass) and phagos (to eat/live) [7, p. 102]. Alongside Amadina and Poephila, Chloebia thus became a third genus name applied to the Gouldian Finch.
1877: Poephila armitiana
Edward Pierson Ramsay (1842–1916) was an Australian zoologist and curator of the Australian Museum in Sydney. He regularly published articles in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. In his 1877 article Some further remarks on Poephila gouldiae and Poephila mirabilis (Homb. et Jacq.) [11, p. 70], Ramsay described the yellow-headed variant of the Gouldian Finch. He already noted that this form probably had to be regarded as a colour variant (a golden or yellow-headed phase) of the already known species, rather than as a distinct species. Nevertheless, he assigned it a separate name and called it Poephila armitiana, after a friend, Inspector Armit, who supplied him with these birds [7, p. 55].
Below are translations of several paragraphs from his article:
“…I am indebted to Inspector Armit for much interesting information on the habits of these beautiful finches, and other rare birds in Northern Queensland, also for the loan of the specimens I exhibit this evening.….”
“…Since writing the above, I have received from Mr Armit a specimen of this species in a very interesting stage of plumage. The head is black, as in that stage known under the name gouldiae, but the feathers of the crown and the sides of the face as far as behind the eyes are tipped with bright golden yellow, while their bases are light brown or whitish. A narrow bluish band bounds the black of the throat and head. The remainder of the upper surface is green, with the exception of the upper tail-coverts, which are bluish, some of the younger feathers being green, edged with white at the tips. The two central tail feathers are elongated and pointed. The breast is light beige, washed with pale violet-purple; the flanks and abdomen are light yellow; the under tail-coverts white. The bill is light horn-coloured at the base and becomes blackish towards the tip….”
“…If this golden-headed bird were not decidedly a young individual one might be induced to describe it as a new species, showing parallel phases of plumage with P. mirabilis, and in the adult acquiring a golden instead of a crimson head. Those ornithologists, therefore, who take this view of the question may distinguish the golden-headed forms by the name of P. armitiana, in the same way that some good ornithologists, considering the black-headed birds to be a distinct species, distinguish them under the name of Poephila gouldiæ..”
It is clear that at that time there was hardly any knowledge of genetics. Although Mendel had published his theory on the inheritance of characteristics some ten years earlier in Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden [12], the concept of colour mutations in birds was at that time virtually nonexistent.
Ramsay named this bird after William Edington Armit (1848–1901), who worked as a police officer in the region of northern Queensland and New Guinea in the late 19th century. He was born in Liège, Belgium, as the son of a British-Irish army agent and left for Australia in 1866 as a sailor. He initially worked as a cattle drover in Queensland and later became a police officer. As a member of the Linnean Society, he also wrote articles on the local fauna and flora.
Thus, Poephila armitiana became established and, according to the views of that time, there were now three different species. Remarkably, Ramsay did not place armitiana in the genus Chloebia, as Reichenbach had proposed 15 years earlier, but remained faithful to the genus Poephila. It would not surprise me if researchers in Australia at that time were not even aware of Reichenbach’s work.
1891: Only one species?
The discovery that the Gouldian Finch represents a single species with three different colour morphs (head colours), rather than three separate species, is attributed to the Australian ornithologist Alfred John North (1855–1917). Although suspicions had existed for some time, North was the first to substantiate this scientifically and to publish it in 1891 in his article “Notes on the variations of the plumage of the Gouldian Finch, Poephila gouldiae” in the Records of the Australian Museum [13].
J. North described that Gouldian Finches with different head colours (red, black, and yellow) were caught together in the same area. Breeding results from bird fanciers in Sydney showed that pairings between red-headed and black-headed birds could produce both red-headed and black-headed offspring. Even pairings between two black-headed birds produced both red-headed and black-headed young. In addition, North examined hundreds of birds at dealers and observed that all colour forms occurred intermixed. Based on these observations, he concluded that Poephila gouldiae, Poephila mirabilis, and Poephila armitiana were not separate species, but colour variants of one and the same species, Poephila gouldiae.
1943: Erythrura gouldiae
In 1943, the Franco-American ornithologist Jean Delacour proposed a major revision of the family Estrildidae. Jean Théodore Delacour (1890–1985) published an article in the scientific journal Zoologica (issued by the New York Zoological Society) entitled A revision of the subfamily Estrildinae of the family Ploceidae [14, pp. 69–86]. In this article, he proposed discontinuing the separate genus Chloebia for the Gouldian Finch and placing it instead among the parrotfinches (Erythrura).
More than a hundred years earlier, in 1837, William Swainson had introduced the genus Erythura. The name was derived from Greek words: erythros = red and oura = tail (red tail). Unfortunately, Swainson did not combine these two words entirely correctly and initially named the genus Erythura. When Latinised according to classical Greek compounding rules, however, the second element -oura should be transformed into -ura, and the connecting form must also be correct. For this reason, the name was later corrected to Erythrura, which is linguistically accurate.
Delacour based his proposal on several arguments:
- Oral papillae of the chicks
This was the most convincing evidence for Delacour. Chicks of both the Gouldian Finch and the various parrotfinch species (Erythrura) possess very specific, luminous (reflective) blue nodules at the corners of the mouth. Because this is a highly specialised evolutionary feature that helps parents locate the gapes of their offspring in dark nest cavities, Delacour regarded it as an indication of close blood relationship. - Plumage structure
Delacour observed that the texture and sheen of the feathers in the Gouldian Finch are identical to those of Erythrura species. He described the plumage as hard and silky, which differs markedly from the softer feathers found in other waxbills. - Anatomical similarities
In addition to external appearance, he examined bill shape and overall body structure. Although the Gouldian Finch is unique in colouration, the fundamental structure of the bird is almost indistinguishable from that of the parrotfinches inhabiting the islands of the Pacific Ocean. - Ecological adaptation
Delacour’s central argument was that the Gouldian Finch is, in essence, a parrotfinch that has adapted to life on the dry savannah. Most Erythrura species live in dense, humid forests and feed on bamboo and grass seeds, but Delacour argued that the Gouldian Finch is simply the Australian grassland variant of this group. He viewed the brighter breast colours as an adaptation to open sunlight, not as a reason for maintaining a separate genus.
DNA studies
Over the years, scientific knowledge of genetics has steadily advanced, and thanks to DNA research, scientists began to participate actively in these discussions. This has already led to several remarkable insights. I list the most important ones below.
1986: Christidis
Leslie (Les) Christidis (born 1959) is an Australian ornithologist and professor who has become world-renowned for his work on bird taxonomy. In 1986 he published his groundbreaking research based on protein electrophoresis (an early form of genetic research). His study showed that the Gouldian Finch and the parrotfinch (Erythrura trichroa), although they differ completely in appearance, are nevertheless genetically so closely related that they officially belong to the same group [15]. Christidis demonstrated that the Gouldian Finch is simply a “specialised side branch” of the parrotfinches.
If they belong to the same genus, the obvious question arises as to whether these birds should be classified within Erythrura or within Chloebia. Fortunately, this is easy to resolve. In taxonomy, the rule applies that the oldest validly published name is the correct one and must always be used [16]. This is known as the principle of priority, a fundamental rule within the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Because the name Erythrura was established as early as 1837, and Chloebia only in 1862, Erythrura became the official genus name.
2004: Sorenson
In a 2004 study by Michael D. Sorenson (Professor at Boston University in the United States), mitochondrial DNA was used to demonstrate once again that the Gouldian Finch is closely related to the parrotfinches (Erythrura), but that, according to this author, it differs genetically enough to keep the taxonomic debate over retaining a separate genus Chloebia alive [17].
2009: Arnaiz-Villena et al.
This 2009 study, led by the Spaniard Antonio Arnaiz-Villena, examined the distribution of waxbills across the continents. The authors suggested that the ancestors of the Gouldian Finch may have migrated from Asia to Australia, which would explain the close relationship with the (largely Asian/Pacific) parrotfinches [18]. Arnaiz-Villena estimated that the waxbills (Estrildidae) diverged from their sister group, the whydahs (Viduidae), approximately 20 million years ago, during the early Miocene. A later study by Olsson and Alström places this divergence at 15.5 million years. These latter authors themselves use the name Erythrura gouldiae.
2018: Genome mapped
In 2018, the results of a genome study were published for the first time. These showed that the Gouldian Finch, like most birds, has a genome size of about 1.1 GB (i.e. more than 1,100,000 bases) and that 18,989 genes were identified [19]. It should be made clear that future studies may adjust these numbers. New research techniques may yield more precise results. There are sources that state that the Gouldian Finch, like many finch species, would have 40 pairs of chromosomes, but let me be clear: there is no evidence whatsoever for this. Moreover, our own experience with other species has shown that even within a single genus, this number can vary considerably.
2018–2019: Toomey and Kim
Breeding results in aviculture had already confirmed at an early stage that the black head is a sex-linked recessive trait and that the yellow head is an autosomal recessive mutation. In 2018 and 2019, researchers succeeded in tracing the genetic region responsible for the red head colour [20], [21]. The first study, written by K.-W. Kim, B. C. Jackson, H. Zhang and colleagues (University of Sheffield, United Kingdom), investigated the genetic basis and maintenance of the sex-linked polymorphism (the occurrence of different forms) of head colour in the Gouldian Finch. Shortly thereafter, the results of Matthew B. Toomey (University of Tulsa) were published, which led to virtually the same conclusions.
Both research teams independently discovered that the colour difference between red and black head colour is determined by a region of approximately 72 kilobases (kb) on the Z chromosome (a sex chromosome). This small piece of non-coding DNA on the sex chromosome appears to be responsible for variation in head colour and may even influence the bird’s behaviour. Although the gene itself does not differ between red-headed and black-headed birds, the discovered region likely functions as an “on/off switch” (a region for gene regulation) that determines where and when follistatin is produced. In genetics, this is often referred to as a regulatory element or promoter region. Follistatin influences feather development and pigmentation (carotenoids and melanin). In the black-headed Gouldian Finch, the Follistatin gene is highly active, stimulating the deposition of melanin. This black pigment effectively “masks” the red colour that could otherwise be present underneath. In the red-headed bird, the genetic variation suppresses melanin production, allowing the bright carotenoids (red) to become visible.
The study also shed light on the yellow head. This turned out to be a separate mechanism. A bird that is genetically a red-head (meaning the Follistatin switch is set to “red”) can acquire a yellow head colour if it carries a mutation in another gene responsible for the processing of carotenoids. In that case, the bird is unable to “upgrade” the pigment from yellow to red, causing the head to remain yellow. This is, of course, something that has long been known in aviculture: a yellow-headed bird can only be bred in combination with the red-headed form.
An interesting detail is that, according to these data, the original evolutionary ancestral form from which the species emerged (15 to 20 million years ago) probably had a black head. Over the course of evolution, the red head colour, partly due to this gene, became the dominant expression. In evolutionary biology, this is referred to as a selective sweep: when a new, advantageous trait arises and increases in frequency so rapidly that it becomes fixed within a population. In other words, this sweep ensured that red was no longer merely an option, but became the standard for the entire species.
Birds with a red head colour are more aggressive and more frequently win confrontations over food or nesting sites. Because this confers an advantage, the red gene spread rapidly through the population. Nevertheless, this gene never reached complete fixation, and—which makes it particularly interesting—the black head was retained as well. It did, however, lead to a change in behaviour.
Naturally, the phenotype of this distant ancestral form would not have appeared as colourful as the present-day form. The characteristic colour pattern we observe today in the Gouldian Finch developed only several million years later. In this respect, the red-headed Gouldian Finch represents the last major “update” in a process spanning millions of years. Genetics and evolution are inseparably linked. This is certainly not a simple topic, but it is a very fascinating one.
2020: Olsson and Alström
The 2020 study by Urban Olsson and Per Alström from Sweden provides an extensive revision of the evolutionary tree (phylogeny) and classification of the waxbills (Estrildidae) [22]. For the first time, these authors constructed a phylogenetic tree based on both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA for nearly all genera within this bird family. This study is far-reaching and leads to the following conclusions.
Waxbills likely diverged from their closest relatives, the whydahs (genus Viduidae), approximately 15.5 million years ago. From this lineage, the common ancestor of all extant waxbills developed around 10.9 million years ago. Subsequently, six main evolutionary lineages (subfamilies) arose.
Based on the genetic data, the authors propose dividing the family Estrildidae into six subfamilies:
• Amandavinae: including the Green Avadavat
• Erythrurinae: the parrotfinches (such as the Gouldian Finch)
• Estrildinae: mainly African species, such as the astrilds
• Lagonostictinae: firefinches and related species
• Lonchurinae: munias and silverbills
• Poephilinae: Australian grassfinches (such as the Zebra Finch)
Based on this study, we can conclude that the current grouping of some birds does not reflect their true evolutionary relationships. For example, the current classification of the genera Neochmia (including the Crimson Finch), Nesocharis (tit-waxbills), and Taeniopygia (zebra finches) would be incorrect and needs to be revised. Clearly, much work remains to be done.
For the Gouldian Finch, this means that it belongs to the subfamily Erythrurinae. Within this group, the Gouldian Finch is regarded as the sister species to all other parrotfinches. This implies that the Gouldian Finch originated within the genus Erythrura but was the first to diverge from the rest of the group. In this way, this research confirms the placement of the Gouldian Finch within the genus Erythrura.
2023: DeCicco, DeRaad, and Ostrow
Lucas H. DeCicco is an ornithologist whose research focuses on the evolution of birds on islands. Devon A. DeRaad and Emily N. Ostrow specialise in phylogenomic analyses and, for most of their work, collaborate at the University of Kansas Biodiversity Institute. Their 2023 research also confirms, on the basis of both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, that the Gouldian Finch is indeed the sister species of the entire group of parrotfinches (Erythrura) [23].
However, although the Gouldian Finch is genetically closely related and the phylogenetic tree clearly shows that it forms a distinct, early-branching lineage within the genus Erythrura, these researchers nevertheless support the argument for retaining the monotypic genus Chloebia (a genus containing only a single species). In other words, it largely depends on one’s perspective: is the glass half empty, or half full?
2026: And now?
Although Delacour was very explicit in 1943, science has still not reached complete consensus. In aviculture, both the genus name Chloebia and Erythrura are used for the Gouldian Finch. This is often because taxonomy is a distant and abstract subject for most enthusiasts. As a result, they prefer to keep things as they are, and once a name has become established, they are rarely inclined to change it.
It may also be worth mentioning that the International Ornithologists’ Union (IOC), the global authority on bird names, currently still uses the name Chloebia gouldiae (version 15.1, 2025). Despite the genetic evidence presented by Christidis and Olsson, they follow the reasoning of DeCicco: the bird is considered unique enough to retain its own genus name. Nevertheless, we observe that a gradual scientific consensus is emerging in favour of placing the Gouldian Finch in the genus Erythrura. Most modern databases recognise Erythrura gouldiae as the valid name, while Chloebia gouldiae remains (for now) in use as an alternative.
Put simply: science is leaning towards Erythrura, but Chloebia will likely remain firmly established for some time yet.
As can be seen in the accompanying diagram, the origin most likely lies with the ancestor of Erythrura kleinschmidti. From there, the other Erythrura species, including the Gouldian Finch, developed. Based on these scientific insights, we henceforth prefer the name Erythrura gouldiae.
This results in the following classification:
Class: Aves (birds)
Order: Passeriformes (perching birds)
Family: Estrildidae (waxbills)
Subfamily: Erythrurinae
Genus: Erythrura (Swainson, 1837)
Species: gouldiae (Gould, 1844)
But who knows what new insights may emerge in the near future?
The Roman writer Publilius Syrus already told us: “Dies diem docet”, which means “one day teaches another”.
Harry van der Linden was certainly convinced of this… and so am I!
Keep up the good work
Dirk Van den Abeele
References
[1] A. J. Gilby, S. R. Pryke, en S. C. Griffith, “The historical frequency of head-colour morphs in the Gouldian Finch (Erythrura gouldiae)”, Emu, vol. 109, nr. 3, pp. 222-229, 2009.
[2] C. O’Malley en R. Team, “National Recovery Plan for the Gouldian Finch (Erythrura gouldiae)”, WWF-Aust. Syd. Parks Wildl. NT Dep. Nat. Resour. Environ. Arts NT Gov. Palmerst., 2005, Geraadpleegd: 15 april 2026. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: https://www.agriculture.gov.au/system/files/resources/05533ef8-79c8-4763-a2e3-cb50d2858b95/files/e-gouldiae.pdf
[3] B. I. (BirdLife International), “IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Chloebia gouldiae”, IUCN Red List Threat. Species, dec. 2021, Geraadpleegd: 15 april 2026. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: https://www.iucnredlist.org/en
[4] C. Darwin, The Zoology of the Voyage of HMS Beagle: Under the Command of Captain Fitzroy, RN, During the Years 1832 to 1836… Smith, Elder and Company, 1839.
[5] J. Braeckman, Darwins moordbekentenis/druk 1: de ontwikkeling van het denken van Charles Darwin. Uitgeverij Nieuwezijds, 2008.
[6] Zoological Society of London., Z. S. of London, en Z. S. of London, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, vol. pt.12-15 (1844-1847). London: Academic Press, [etc.], 1844, pp. 1-750. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/46217
[7] J. A. Joblin, Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm, 2010.
[8] Baudry, Jean Baptiste, e.a., Voyage au pole sud et dans l’Océanie sur les corvettes l’Astrolabe et la Zélée, exécuté par ordre du roi pendant les années 1837- 1838-1839-1840, sous le commandement de m.J. Dumont d’Urville,capitaine de vaisseau, publié par ordonnance de Sa Majesté sous la direction supérieure de m. Ja cquinot, capitaine de vaisseau, commandant de la Zélée …, vol. Histoire du voyage:t.8 (1845). Paris: Gide et J. Baudry, Éditeurs, 1845, pp. 1-402. doi: 10.5962/bhl.title.85335.
[9] E. Gould, E. Gould, J. Gould, en H. C. Richter, The birds of Australia, vol. v.1 (1848). London: Printed by R. and J. E. Taylor; pub. by the author, 1848, pp. 1-288. doi: 10.5962/bhl.title.105698.
[10] H. G. L. (Heinrich G. L. Reichenbach, Les oiseaux chanteurs = The song-birds = Die Singvögel als Fortsetzung der vollständigsten Naturgeschichte und zugleich als Central-Atlas für zoologische Gärten und für Thierfreunde. Ein durch zahlreiche illuminirte Abbildungen illustrirtes Handbuch zur richtigen Bestimmung und Pflege der Thiere aller Classen. Dresden und Leipzig: Expedition der vollständigsten Naturgeschichte, 1862. Geraadpleegd: 16 april 2026. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: http://archive.org/details/lesoiseauxchante00reic
[11] Linnean Society of New South Wales., L. S. of N. S. Wales, en L. S. of N. S. Wales, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, vol. v.2 (1877-1878). Sydney: Linnean Society of New South Wales, 1877, pp. 1-468. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/22891
[12] W. Bateson en G. Mendel, Mendel’s principles of heredity. University press, 1913.
[13] Alfred John North, “”Notes on the variations of the plumage of the Gouldian Finch, Poephila gouldiae”, Records of the Australian Museum, vol. 1, Sidney, pp. 209-210, 1891.
[14] J. Delacour, “A revision of the subfamily Estrildinae of the family Ploceidae”, Zool. Sci. Contrib. N. Y. Zool. Soc., vol. 28, nr. 11, pp. 69-86, sep. 1943, doi: 10.5962/p.184665.
[15] L. Christidis, “Biochemical systematics within palaeotropic finches (Aves: Estrildidae)”, The Auk, vol. 104, nr. 3, pp. 380-392, 1987.
[16] Strickland, Strickland Code of Zoological Nomenclature. 1840. Geraadpleegd: 30 september 2013. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: http://archive.org/details/cbarchive_41401_stricklandcodeofzoologicalnome1840
[17] M. D. Sorenson, C. N. Balakrishnan, en R. B. Payne, “Clade-Limited Colonization in Brood Parasitic Finches (Vidua spp.)”, Syst. Biol., vol. 53, nr. 1, pp. 140-153, feb. 2004, doi: 10.1080/10635150490265021.
[18] A. Arnaiz-Villena, V. Ruiz-del-Valle, P. Gomez-Prieto, R. Reguera, C. Parga-Lozano, en I. Serrano-Vela, “Estrildinae Finches (Aves, Passeriformes) from Africa, South Asia and Australia: a Molecular Phylogeographic Study”, Open Ornithol. J., vol. 2, nr. 1, pp. 29-36, aug. 2009, doi: 10.2174/1874453200902010029.
[19] “Chloebia gouldiae genome assembly GouldianFinch”, NCBI. Geraadpleegd: 20 april 2026. [Online]. Beschikbaar op: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/genome/GCA_003676055.1/
[20] M. B. Toomey e.a., “A non-coding region near Follistatin controls head colour polymorphism in the Gouldian finch”, Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., vol. 285, nr. 1888, p. 20181788, okt. 2018, doi: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1788.
[21] K.-W. Kim e.a., “Genetics and evidence for balancing selection of a sex-linked colour polymorphism in a songbird”, Nat. Commun., vol. 10, nr. 1, p. 1852, apr. 2019, doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-09806-6.
[22] U. Olsson en P. Alström, “A comprehensive phylogeny and taxonomic evaluation of the waxbills (Aves: Estrildidae)”, Mol. Phylogenet. Evol., vol. 146, p. 106757, mei 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2020.106757.
[23] L. H. DeCicco, D. A. DeRaad, E. N. Ostrow, en R. G. Moyle, “A complete species-level phylogeny of the Erythrura parrotfinches (Aves: Estrildidae)”, Mol. Phylogenet. Evol., vol. 187, p. 107883, 2023.
